Buddhist philosophy
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Introduction
Some assert that all of Buddhism should be regarded as a philosophy rather than a religion; they may cite Buddhism's non-theistic nature or a de-theologized interpretation of Buddist worship practices. The Buddha himself taught that a person should accept a teaching only if his own experience verifies it, which may seem to Westerners to be a non-religious teaching. It is worth noting that the line between philosophy and religion is very difficult to draw in the Indian and Chinese contexts in which Buddhism enjoyed its early development, and so the distinction may well be moot.
The term Buddhist philosophy may refer to:
- certain bodies of Buddhist writing and teaching that predominantly deal with philosophical theory, such as metaphysics, phenomenology, and epistemology. It remains useful to distinguish such teachings from other Buddhist writings.
- the process of viewing Buddhism through the "lens" of philosophy, rather than the "lens" of religion. Many insights into the teachings of the Buddha can be better understood in this context.
Particular points of Buddhist philosophizing have often been the subject of disputes between different schools of Buddhism. Basic epistological questions such as "Is there a god?" and "Does the soul (Atman) really exist?" have divided the Buddha's followers even during his own lifetime.
Note that theory for its own sake is not valued in Buddhism, but theory pursued in the interest of enlightenment for oneself or others is fully consistent with Buddhist values and ethics.
Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism
Epistemology
Decisive in distinguishing Buddhism from what is commonly called Hinduism is the issue of epistemological justification. The schools of Indian logic recognize a certain set of valid justifications for knowledge, while Buddhism recognizes a smaller set. Both accept perception and argument, for example, but for the orthodox schools, the received textual tradition (e.g., the Vedas) is in itself an epistemological category equal to perception and argument, so that to make a claim that was unsubstantiable by appeal to the textual canon would be as ridiculous as to claim the sky was green.
Buddhism, on the other hand, rejected an inflexible reverence of accepted doctrine. As the Buddha said:
- Do not accept anything by mere tradition. . . Do not accept anything just because it accords with your scriptures. . . Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with your pre-conceived notions. . . But when you know for yourselves -- these things are moral, these things are blameless, these things are praised by the wise, these things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to well-being and happiness -- then do you live acting accordingly.
- -- the Kalama Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya III.65
Metaphysics and phenomenology
Issues arising from the doctrine of anatta
In earliest Buddhism and today still in [[Theravada|Theravā da]], any metaphysical essence or being underlying the play of phenomenal experience is rejected. No "soul" or permanent self was recognized, and the perception of a continuous identity was held to be an illusion.
- Any feeling whatsoever, any perception whatsoever, any mental processes whatsoever, any consciousness whatsoever -- past, future, or present; internal or external; blatant or subtle, common or sublime, far or near; every consciousness -- is to be seen as it actually is with right discernment as "This is not mine. This is not my self. This is not what I am."
- -- the Anattalakkhana Sutta, Samyutta Nikaya XXII.59
Other debates in metaphysics and phenomenology include the issue of the Pudgala, or "person", which was inserted by the Pudgalavada school to replace the ā tman as that which transmigrates and that which carries the burden of karma from one life to another. Other schools made unsurprising objection to this. There were further sub-debates regarding whether the pudgala was real or illusory or something in between. The Yogacara school, somewhat later, would later elevate the mind to act as a substitute for Brahman, much as the Pudgala replaces the ā tman.
In many or all of these debates, some would point out the irony of pursuing questions which the Buddha was often prone to refuse to answer, on the grounds that they were non-conducive to enlightenment.
For more detailed information, see Schools of Buddhism and the individual schools themselves.
Dependent Origination
The original positive Buddhist contribution to the field of metaphysics is ''[[Pratitya-samutpada|pratī tyasamutpā da]]'', which arises from the Buddhist critique of Indian theories of causality. It states that events are not predetermined, nor are they random, and it rejects notions of direct causation owing to the need for such theories in the Indian context to be undergirded by a substantialist metaphysics. Instead, it posits the arising of events under certain conditions which are inextricable, such that the units in question at no time have independent existence.
- This being, that becomes.
- From the arising of this, that arises.
- This not being, that does not become.
- From the ceasing of this, that ceases.
- -- Samyutta-Nikaya ii.28
[[Nagarjuna|Nāgārjuna ]], one of the most influential Buddhist philosophers, asserted a direct connection between, even identity of, dependent origination, anatta, and śūnyatā . He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination is the lack of any substantial being (anatta)underlying the participants in origination, so that they have no independent existence, a state identified as emptiness (śūnyatā ), or emptiness of a nature or essence (sva-bhā va). This element of Nāgārjuna 's thought is relatively uncontroversial, but it opens the way for his identification of saṃ sā ra and nirvāṇa , which was revolutionary.
Interpenetration
This doctrine comes from the Avatamsaka Sutra and it's associated schools. It holds that all phenomena are intimately connected. Two images are used to convey this idea. The first is known as Indra's net. The net is set with jewels which have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of the other jewels. The second image is that of the world text. This image potrays the world as being comprised of an enormous text which is as large as the universe itself. The 'words' of the text are composed of the phenomena that make up the world. However, every atom of the world contains the whole text within it. It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings can be liberated from suffering.
This idea was enormously influential on the Japanese monk kūkai in founding the Shingon school of Buddhism.
Ethics
Although there are many ethical tenets in Buddhism that differ depending on whether one is a monk or a layman, and depending on individual schools, the Buddhist system of ethics can always be summed up in the Eightfold Path.
- And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of suffering -- precisely this Noble Eightfold Path -- right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.
- -- Samyutta-Nikaya LVI.11
But other Buddhist teachings claim that there is no meaningful difference between ourselves and others; therefore one should attempt to increase the happiness of all living things as eagerly as one's own. This is why many Buddhists choose to be vegetarians.
Historical development of Buddhist philosophy
Early development
The philosophical outlook of Earliest Buddhism was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to reject more than on what doctrines to accept. This dimension has been preserved by the Madhyamaka school. It includes critical rejections of all views, which is a form of philosophy, but it is reluctant to posit its own. Only knowledge that is useful in achieving enlightenment is valued. The cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting to make explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the early Suttas.
After the death of the Buddha, attempts were made to gather his teachings and transmit them in a commonly agreed form, first orally, then also in writing (The Tripitaka). In addition to collecting the Buddha's speeches and rules for monastic life (Vinaya), monks soon undertook it to condense what they considered the essential elements of Buddhist doctrine into lists of categories, provided with extensive commentary. This process took shape from about the 2nd century BC to probably the 2nd century AD.
Later developments
Very soon after, additional teachings began to be added to the list of important Buddhist texts. Many of these altered and refined Buddhist philosophy.
More information needs to be added to this section. This is everything from Mahayana to Zen and up to the present.
Comparison with other philosophies
- Arthur Schopenhauer in his "World as Will and Idea" presented a description of suffering and its cause in a Western garb.
- Baruch Spinoza, though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow is conquered "by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting." Buddhism teaches that such a quest is bound to fail.
- David Hume, after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. Hume's Bundle theory is a very similar concept to anatta.
Some Buddhist philosophers
- Asanga
- Chandrakirti
- Dignaga
- Dogen
- Fazang
- Jinul
- Jizang
- Nagarjuna
- Vasubandhu
- Weonhyo
See also:
- List of Buddhist terms and concepts
- List of Buddhist topics
- List of sutras
- Madhyamaka
- Buddhist polemics
External links